If you ask a child with autism to read a story to you, chances are that she or he will read with an almost robotic voice, word for word, with no expression.  Even an accomplished decoder will focus on getting the words right rather than the phrasing. 

Good readers actually “hear” the story in their heads; there’s a voice or a narrator operating in our minds as we read a narrative.   

Our minds identify and process punctuation marks, italics, and other textual clues that tell us where and when to emphasize words and syllables.  Our narrator keeps track of what’s going on in the story so that we can infuse emotion into the dialogue and descriptions.

 This does not seem to happen with most readers with autism.  And when it doesn’t, understanding is crippled.

Read-Aloud is not enough 

 One of the strategies that both general ed and special ed teachers learn early on is to use the read-aloud to foster in our students a love for the written word and an understanding of how reading is supposed to “sound”.  As I commented in another post (“The Problem of the Read-Aloud”), many readers with autism have auditory processing issues and are just not going to be able to hear read-aloud stories and learn from them.

 A couple of activities have worked in my classroom, and they’re fairly easy to implement.  They are the Read Naturally program, and readers theater.  (See separate post on the latter for additional information.)

Read Naturally is an older, but not outdated reading program that addresses reading fluency.  It consists of short, high-interest texts, usually half a page to a page long, with accompanying cassettes.  The tapes are used to introduce a reader to the story and hear the inflection and expression used as it is read aloud.  Kids read the story out loud over and over and over, until they, too, have reached an appropriate level of speed and fluency. 

Tip:  I tend not to use the tapes as often as other teachers do, because I like to read each story to a student and discuss with them how and when I decide to emphasize certain parts and how I decide where to infuse my reading with emotion.  Then I send him or her off to practice.  A child has to read a story between 10 and 20 times to get the right speed, smoothness, and expression.  I might listen to him or her read the story 2-4 times in between practices, so that I can monitor the inflections.

Progress toward expression comes slowly 

What happens when a reader with autism works this hard at reading a story is that slowly but surely, some emphasis and  inflection begins to occur throughout the reading.  In my experience, a reader with autism who works for several months on Read Naturally, which has texts at every half-grade level from primer on up, gradually develops a “feel” for how text should sound. 

 The texts are short enough that the reader can practice for brief periods, interesting enough that most readers with autism enjoy them, and exciting enough that they can find ways to personalize them with expression.

Reader’s theater

The second instructional strategy that often works to help readers with autism develop their own internal narrator is the use of readers theater.  Put a child in a group of peers with similar reading levels, and give the group a quirky, funny script to read.  They will have fun and try on all sorts of voices, mannerisms, and methods of expression.

I usually introduce the script to the kids and hang out with them as they work their way the first couple of readings.  They often like to switch parts frequently, and that’s just fine, though a reader with autism may wish to stick with the same character – that’s also fine.

Tip:  Once they are all sure about the words and the story line, I like to assign leaders and let them work by themselves for awhile.  Our classroom aide checks in periodically to make sure they’re on task.

What we find is that very quickly, all of the students are experimenting with accents, voices, and inflection of the phrases.  When students experience this out loud, they are far more likely to internalize the knowledge and use it later in their independent reading. 

Hearing the internal narrator

I believe that once a reader with autism hears the internal narrator during independent reading, comprehension naturally improves and expectation that the text will tell a cohesive story increases exponentially.

Related posts:

1. FAQs about anaphoric cuing and reading comprehension
2. So he resists reading: What does he like?
3. Irresistible reading: Stories starring our kids as characters

By Sara Finegan

Students on the autism spectrum don’t tend to make inferences deliberately.  It’s not that they never make them; they just aren’t aware of it and it needs to be brought to their attention before we can teach them to transfer the skill from their own lives to the written word.  It’s important to treat inferencing instruction as a process, not a project.  By this I mean that we should be patient, slow, and consistent in implementing some sort of practice of making inferences into our instruction all year long.

There is no Language Arts unit called “Making Inferences.”   There is a gradual unveiling of the skill and ongoing work in strengthening it as a reading habit.  Reading comprehension strategies should not be taught in isolation, or in compact curricular plans.  Reading comprehension is a set of practices which layer, one upon the other, to create an overlay for any book we read.

First Steps

I never begin my instruction in making inferences by teaching it.  I begin with stories.  During our early morning housekeeping, I may tell a quick anecdote about something that happened and see what conclusions the kids can draw from it.  Essentially, my stories are about a person or an event which is described but not named.

I may talk about how my daughter called me in a panic asking for the name of a good car repair shop, and see if the kids would infer that she either had an accident or that her car had broken down. I might describe the man whose office I visited, and his spotless white coat and that stethoscope he wore around his neck, and see if the kids would infer that I was at the doctor.  Or, I might talk about how my cats had suddenly started scratching themselves like crazy, and see if they would suggest that they have fleas.  Invariably, someone in the class will raise his or her hand and make a suggestion that involves an inference about the story I’m telling. And when they do, I say “excellent inference!” and proceed to restate the event, the setting, or the person I’m talking about.  It takes less than five minutes to accomplish this task, and the kids soon learn to be paying attention to my words in order to “guess” what’s going on.  Very casual, very informal.

Awareness of their inferences

The informality does not belie the purpose, which is to familiarize the kids with the concept of making inferences and an awareness when they make them. When we are supporting readers with autism in developing comprehension strategies, it’s important, though not crucial that they be able to identify the strategy and when they are doing it. (Why is it important? I believe that the children I teach need to develop an awareness of the way they think and learn. This prepares them for reflection on their progress and goals, and allows them to participate more fully in their own instruction.) The first step in teaching kids to make inferences as they read is to tell them what an inference is, and show them that they already use it to some extent in their lives.

About a month into any given school year, I add a quick routine to my morning instruction. On a series of index cards, I write word groups that are intended to provoke an inference.  I will show the kids two or three of the cards in the morning, and perhaps two or three in the afternoon, right after lunch and before we start social studies.  I simply place a card on the document camera and wait for the kids, individually or in groups, to shout out what they think the words have in common.  As with my anecdotes, the word groupings always have to do with an event or a character or a setting.  I keep it simple, and try to incorporate the kids’ own background knowledge as I write the word cards.

Tip: I have, on occasion, begun with picture cards instead of words. For a few days, I’ll show kids cards as described above, only the cards will have 3-4 pictures instead of words. Then I’ll move to word cards.

During this time, some fabulous and thoughtful discussions usually begin about the words and their connotations.  I push kids to justify their choices and explain them to the rest of the class.  If there’s a disagreement, we talk about it. My role is as facilitator, and thus I do not intervene with the right or wrong answer, but simply ask open-ended questions to help guide the kids to a deeper discussion.

Teacher: Ok, who will read the words? Sammy?

Sam:  Cake, flowers, white dress, church

Teacher:  Terrific. Who has an inference?

Jaylin:  Birthday party.

Sam:   No way.  It’s a wedding.

Jaylin:   But there’s cake.

Brianna:   I put quinceanera.

Teacher:  Three ideas! Let’s discuss! Jaylin, talk about your inference that it’s a birthday party. Tell me the words you used for that inference.

Jaylin:  Cake, ‘cause there’s cake at a birthday party. And flowers.  And a nice dress.

Teacher:  Oh, so you understood that people dress up for a birthday party, sure.

Jaylin:  Yeah. And there’s presents.

Teacher:  Oh, you used the word “presents”? Is that on the list?

Jaylin:  No.

Teacher:  Brianna, talk about your idea that it’s a quinceanera.

Brianna:  Girls wear white dresses and you can have communion at church, and they decorate with flowers.

Teacher:  Oh, so you used the word church and the white dresses and the flowers to come up with that. Have you been to a quinceneara?

Brianna:  My sister had one.

Sam:  But you don’t go to church. It’s just a party.

Teacher:  That is true in many Mexican communities, Sammy. But other cultures, like the Puerto Rican culture, often have a religious service before the party.

Sam:  Oh.

Teacher:   Sam, talk about why you think it’s a wedding.

Sam:   Because the girl wears a white dress and it’s in a church. You don’t have a birthday party in a church.

Jaylin:  Oh, yeah.

Teacher:  Ok, so Jaylin, are you adjusting your ideas now?

Jaylin:  Yeah.  He’s right, they don’t do birthday parties in the church.  I forgot that word.

Teacher:  Well, what about Brianna’s inference?

Brianna:  My sister had hers and we all went to church first.

Teacher:  So no wonder you thought “quinceneara” when you saw those words! Well, maybe we need more information to determine which inference is more reasonable. What word could we add, Sam, to make it clear that it’s a wedding?

Sam:  Wedding.

Teacher:  Well, without saying that.  How about, say, “bride” or “ring”?

Sam:   Yeah, that’s good.

Teacher:  Brianna, what word could we add to show that it’s a quinceanera?

Brianna:  I don’t know.

Teacher:  Anyone have an idea?

Stuart:  What if we say “Mexican”?

Teacher:  Do only Mexicans celebrate quinceneara?

Brianna:  No.

Teacher:  Hmmmm. Ok. Well, is there a number or a word we could use?

Brianna:  15?

Teacher:  Ohhhh. 15. Why?

Brianna:  Because that’s how old you are when you have it.

Teacher:  Oh, ok. So if we add 15, does that make people think it’s a quinceneara?

Students:  Yes.

Teacher:  And since the 15 is not on the card, what can we reasonably infer?

Brianna:  I think it’s a wedding.

(Page 1 of 2)

Continued: Be sure to click on the next page below!

Related posts:

1. Hearing the story in your head: The role of expressive reading
2. Autism and hyperlexia, part 1: Anaphoric cuing?
3. Autism and hyperlexia, part 2: Helping Bobby read

One of the most frequent questions I get, from special education and general education teachers alike, is how to deal with the fact that their students with autism do not pay attention during story time.  Readers with autism are generally not good listeners and often will not only fail to attend to read-alouds, but may disrupt the experience of others when it is going on.

I like to think of myself as a dynamic and interesting teacher, one who can keep a child’s interest most of the time, even when the subject we are learning isn’t utterly fascinating.   At any rate, that’s what I aim for, and it usually happens that kids are engaged most of the time in my classroom.

I love read-alouds!

One of my favorite events of the day, is the read-aloud.  We read high-level books, often novels related to what we’re studying in history, to bring that world alive and show how dry facts aren’t just words in a textbook.  We also read funny stories, fantasy books, and fables.   I like to use accents and unique voices to represent characters, and incorporate a lot of drama into the reading.   My students are usually captivated.  Except the ones with autism.

It used to be really disconcerting to look up from a particularly scary rendition of a scene in a Goosebumps story to see my student Bobby looking off into space and laughing at shadows or dust motes floating in the air.   I became rather discouraged when my best Draco Malfoy imitation didn’t even seem to have any effect on him, nor did my ancient old-lady-Charlotte-the-dying-spider voice.   If I hadn’t understood him and how he perceives sound, I’d have given up all aspirations of becoming a reader for Books on Tape.

“Wah…wah…wah…”

Kids with autism do not tend to be auditory learners and most of them do not respond well to the read-aloud.   In fact, the majority of them drift off into their own worlds when I read aloud to the class.   I am reminded of the Charlie Brown television specials, where the teacher’s voice in class is unintelligible, consisting of droned “Wah…wah…wah….” I imagine that is how my students with autism hear me when I’m reading to them.

It doesn’t matter what tone of voice I use, what accent, or how loudly or softly I intone.  They aren’t really present for the reading.  Not very flattering to any teacher, of course, but even more important, it raises the question of how to support the students’ learning if they aren’t attending to the read-aloud.

What is the purpose of the read-aloud?

If you’re struggling with a reader with autism’s inability to listen to the text, stop for a moment and ask yourself why it’s important.   In evaluating how to handle this situation, it is important to consider the express purpose for the read aloud, and determine whether there are alternative ways to get the objectives met.   So, first consider whether:

• The read-aloud is used for the primary purpose of exposing kids to necessary and important text that is higher than their own reading level.

Kids who do not read at grade level often need grade-level texts read to them in order to be able to participate in literacy activities such as response to literature, literary discussions, and just accessing the classics.  If the objective is related to cultural literacy, then a child’s ability to attend to and learn from a read-aloud may be important.  I think we’d all like for every child to have read certain books by the time they finish elementary school:  Charlotte’s Web comes to mind, for example.  If the book is higher than the child’s independent reading level, then understanding the story read aloud could be an essential expectation. But…if your student doesn’t read the book, can you show the film in class? And if not, can it wait?

• The read-aloud is used to expose the kids to the pleasure of the written word.

Reading fluency is not always strong in the early and intermediate process. We need to help kids hear the text in order for them to develop expectations of text and enjoyment of the process. We do want our children to love reading and get pleasure from the written word. It’s good for kids to experience the flow and fluency of text – many of them will not develop the internal voice as readers unless they first hear it externally.

Whether they hear stories on tape or “live,” the fact is that a voice and an auditory experience is important. If the read-aloud is for the purpose of exposing kids to the pleasure of the written word, we may need to accept that for some kids, it’s not going to happen the way we’d like. Maybe your student with autism will enjoy hearing your voice even though  he or she isn’t retaining the words and ideas themselves.  Maybe your student will hear some of the words you are reading and will use his or her imagination to use those words in a different way. And maybe the student will never come to love the sound of the written word, or understand that words are arranged in a pattern that has melody and fluency. There are other things the child will learn that are equally, if not more important this year.

• The read-aloud is used in writing intruction to show kids how words, the rhythm of language, and rhymes can influence a text.
  

The use of read-aloud to support lessons in writing instruction is a best practice employed by most literacy teachers. We can tell kids how mood, and setting, and action are influenced and directed by the use of language and rhythm, but they need to hear it as well as hear about it. It gives them ideas and inspiration to try the techniques out on their own.

Now, if the way words sound is the entire point of the read aloud, there may be alternative ways to teach the lesson to a child with autism. Bobby may not be able to listen to and completely understand a story in which repeated words or rhymes convey a message or mood, but he can learn about and use rhymes in songs and nursery rhymes just as well. He didn’t learn anything when I read aloud When I Was Young and In The Mountains, but he was easily able to write a little story using a repeated introduction after we sang “Old McDonald” and “Do You Remember?”

• The read-aloud is used as a warm-up or cool-down exercise for kids as they prepare to transition to other tasks.

Many teachers have a read-aloud session immediately after recess or lunch to help kids settle down and get ready for active learning again. Reading aloud to kids to help support transitions or to give them a break from written work or intensive intellectual work is a tried and true strategy that many of us have been using for years. It is derived from the bedtime story, and how many of us don’t have memories of drowsing while our parents read us one last book before turning out the lights? This type of read-aloud not only calms the mind and body, but introduces the concept of reading for relaxation to a child.

• The read-aloud is used as a break from other academic tasks.

Research shows that the best learning is accomplished in cycles of input and output of information. Reading is an excellent respite of intake that can be used after an intensive output of intellectual effort. If reading is for relaxation and transitioning, then a child can gain equivalent results from drawing pictures, rocking, doing a puzzle, or some other pleasurable quiet activity.

While you are doing the reading aloud, your students who are weak in auditory processing can be engaging in separate activities—so long as they are able to do so independently and without disturbing others.  One of my students has always loved to draw dragons, and this is his invariable free choice activity.  When everyone moves to the rug for the read-aloud, he pulls out his sketchbook and begins to draw.  Sometimes his dragon pictures actually end up having something to do with what I’m reading aloud; sometimes they simply express whatever is going on in his own mind.

• The read-aloud is used to engage kids in bringing a period of history or a certain situation they’ve read about in other contexts to life.

Students studying the pioneer period love hearing the Little House books read to them; I remember how the colonial and revolutionary period came alive for me when I read Johnny Tremaine. I link genre studies to our history units; we read Aesop’s fables when we study Ancient Greece and a number of Native American legends when we study early America. We explore the mystery genre by reading The Golden Goblet and A Place in the Sun when we study Egypt, and similar novels based in Rome and Greece. We study the Coming of Age genre when we study early man by reading Maroo and the Winter Cave, Boy of Painted Cave, and Dar and the Spear Thrower.

Very few of these texts are able to be accessed by my students on their own; hearing them read, with accents and emphasis, drama and even passion, helps the kids visualize and synthesize information they’ve been learning from their social studies textbooks.  It is important that kids learn that history is a live and pulsating thing, no question about that.  The plethora of excellent books for children and young adults about historical people and events is terrific.  Kids who cannot read them on their own will miss out on some wonderful pieces and likely will not be able to truly envision the times and circumstances about which they have studied.

On the other hand, they can gain some insights from more visual resources, including some of the great pictorial books about historical eras, films, and doing arts and crafts projects.  Just because a child doesn’t truly hear the story of how Laura Ingalls’ father built a log cabin doesn’t mean that she or he can’t find out about them by building a replica; we can learn about candlemaking from reading a story about Laura and her mother, or we can dip them ourselves.

When the child’s attention is essential…

If you determine that the child’s attention to the read-aloud is essential, and that you want to support his or her participation in the experience, there are a few things you can do as a part of the routine.

Here is a list of some strategies that have worked with some of my students with autism.   In addition to these, I’ve had great success with several of my students with autism by using a read-aloud in conjunction with exercises related to questioning as we read.   This intervention is discussed in another blog entry.

…five possible solution tips

1. Give the student have a copy of the text to follow along with.  Having a visual aid is often helpful in keeping a child’s attention on the read-aloud.
2. Make finger puppets or paper puppets on a craft stick for the child to hold up when a given character is speaking or discussed.  The child will follow along as you read more easily if he or she is waiting to hear from or about a character.
3. Ask your students to provide the sound effects for a story.  If you are reading about a storm, set an auditory signal (“sound effects!” or “It sounded like….”) for them to begin making rain or thunder noises. A child with autism will try to pay attention for the opportunity to participate.
4. Ask your student with autism to draw a picture of what you are reading as she or he listens.
5. Rewrite passages from the text into a readers’ theater experience and assign your student with autism to one of the parts.   Let the kids practice and then perform for a small group.

No cookie cutter children!

Use these modifications sparingly.  If it’s really not important that the child be able to hear the read-aloud, don’t try to force it.  Save the interventions for times when it’s essential.  Readers with autism, by their very nature, do not fit into any cookie-cutter classroom view, and we need to pick and choose the times and methods of required conformance.

Related posts:

1. Hearing the story in your head: The role of expressive reading
2. Autism and hyperlexia, part 2: Helping Bobby read
3. Don’t stop advocating for the child with autism!